The vision of a unified African market under the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is facing a growing threat not from tariffs or policy gaps, but from within. A resurgence of xenophobic violence in parts of Africa, particularly in South Africa, is casting a long shadow over one of the continent’s most ambitious economic projects, raising urgent questions about whether Africa is socially and politically prepared for the level of integration it seeks.
AfCFTA was conceived as a transformative framework to liberalise trade among African countries, deepen economic cooperation, and reduce dependence on external markets. At its core is a simple but powerful idea: Africans should trade more with Africans. Yet, the reality remains far from this ideal. Many countries including Nigeria continue to maintain stronger commercial ties with global powers such as France, Germany, and the United States than with neighbouring African economies like Benin, Togo, and Ghana. This imbalance reflects not only historical trade patterns but also structural and political challenges that have slowed intra-African commerce.
The African Continental Free Trade Area, a flagship initiative of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, was designed to change this trajectory. Approved in 2012 in Addis Ababa, the agreement aims to create a single continental market for goods and services, facilitate the movement of capital and people, and ultimately strengthen Africa’s collective position in global trade. Ambitions have even extended to the possibility of a common currency, with the proposed ECO under the Economic Community of West African States often cited as a regional starting point. In theory, such measures would reduce transaction costs, improve efficiency, and foster deeper economic ties across the continent.
In practice, however, progress has been uneven. There have been moments of optimism, such as Nigeria’s exports under AfCFTA to countries like Kenya and Rwanda, which were celebrated as milestones in intra-African trade. Yet these achievements remain modest when measured against the scale of the continent’s economic potential.
One of the most persistent obstacles is the restriction on the movement of people. While AfCFTA emphasises the free flow of goods and services, its success is deeply tied to the ability of Africans to move freely across borders to conduct business, verify opportunities, and build trust. A Nigerian entrepreneur seeking to engage with a supplier in Nairobi, for instance, may still face visa requirements, embassy procedures, and administrative delays that can stall urgent business decisions. This reality stands in contrast to more integrated regions, where mobility has been a key driver of economic growth. Although West Africa has made strides through ECOWAS protocols on free movement, broader continental implementation remains fragmented, and recent political shifts such as the withdrawal of Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali from ECOWAS underscore the fragility of existing frameworks.
Amid these structural challenges, xenophobia has emerged as an even more immediate and destabilising force. In South Africa, hostility toward foreign nationals has periodically erupted into violence since the early 2000s, driven by deep seated inequalities, unemployment, and social frustration. The period between 2015 and 2025 witnessed particularly severe incidents, including the widely reported attacks of 2015, 2017, and 2019, which resulted in deaths, displacement, and the destruction of foreign-owned businesses. Those targeted have largely been fellow Africans Nigerians, Ghanaians, Zimbabweans rather than non-African expatriates, revealing a troubling pattern of intra-continental hostility.
The consequences of these attacks extend beyond immediate human suffering. They disrupt trade networks, weaken investor confidence, and introduce significant risks for businesses operating across borders. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and Nigeria’s National Bureau of Statistics, bilateral trade between Nigeria and South Africa experienced noticeable strain following major xenophobic incidents. South African exports to Nigeria, particularly in telecommunications and banking services, declined after the 2015 and 2019 attacks, while Nigeria’s own exports, including crude oil and agricultural products, faced fluctuations amid deteriorating relations. Beyond statistics, the broader implication has been a decline in confidence both among large investors and small scale traders who form the backbone of intra-African commerce.
These developments highlight a critical contradiction at the heart of Africa’s integration agenda. While policies such as the African Continental Free Trade Area promote unity and cooperation, realities on the ground often reflect division and mistrust.
This contradiction is further underscored by the leadership of the AfCFTA Secretariat, based in Accra, which is headed by Wamkele Mene, a South African national, even as South Africa remains a focal point of xenophobic tensions also the response of authorities has also matched the scale of the problem, which points out that the perceived silence or slow intervention risks undermining confidence in Africa’s integration agenda.
To fully understand the persistence of migration into South Africa despite recurring xenophobic tensions, it is necessary to examine the underlying pull factors. South Africa remains one of the continent’s most advanced economies, with relatively stronger infrastructure, more stable electricity supply, a diversified industrial base, and institutions such as its judiciary and media that are widely regarded as more robust. Its currency, the Rand, also holds more relative value than the Naira, making earnings more meaningful when converted or remitted. These structural advantages continue to attract migrants, even in the face of risk.
This imbalance helps explain a striking trend: while thousands of Nigerians continue to seek entry into South Africa each year, very few South Africans consider relocating to Nigeria for work or business. Migration, in this context, is shaped by relative economic value. A decade ago, the naira held stronger purchasing power across parts of West Africa, attracting labour from neighbouring countries such as Benin Republic . Artisans, including bricklayers and carpenters, routinely crossed into Nigeria for work, earning in Naira and benefiting from favourable exchange rates back home. Today, that dynamic has reversed. The depreciation of the Naira against the CFA franc has significantly reduced its regional value, making Nigeria a less attractive destination for foreign labour and contributing to a decline in cross-border migration into the country.
Yet, even with reports of xenophobic violence, there is no corresponding mass exodus of Africans from South Africa. Official figures placed the Nigerian population at about 24,000 in 2011 and approximately 30,314 in 2016 and 500,000 in 2023. A report by The Guardian Newspaper indicates that as many as 500,000 Nigerians in South Africa may be undocumented, highlighting both the scale of migration and the complexities surrounding legal status.
The growing tension has also triggered diplomatic responses. In a strongly worded move, the Government of Ghana summoned South Africa’s acting envoy in Accra over incidents targeting foreign nationals. According to Ghana’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Minister, Samuel Okudzeto Ablakwa, raised concerns over cases of harassment, including an incident in KwaZulu-Natal where a Ghanaian resident was confronted and asked to justify his legal status. While no fatalities were recorded in the latest episode, Ghana warned of escalating tensions and recalled past incidents that resulted in loss of lives and property, stressing that such acts contradict the ideals of African unity.
Compounding the issue is a persistent narrative that foreign nationals are responsible for taking jobs from local populations. While widely cited, this argument does not always align with economic realities. In many cases, migrant workers fill roles that are either underserved or avoided, or they bring skills that are in short supply. Across sectors such as retail, agriculture, and fishing, foreign participation often complements local economies rather than displacing them. In Akwa Ibom a southern part of Nigeria, for example, foreign fishermen particularly from Ghana have been deeply involved in commercial fishing activities, while local communities benefit through levies and access arrangements. Such dynamics illustrate a more complex economic relationship than the simplistic notion of job displacement suggests.
Similarly, Nigeria, through the Nigerians in Diaspora Commission (NiDCOM) has called for urgent intervention. In a statement issued on April 29, 2026, its Chairman/CEO, Abike Dabiri-Erewa, urged South African authorities to take concrete steps to protect Nigerians and other African migrants. She warned that the situation was deteriorating, with reports indicating that Nigerian families now live in fear, children are reluctant to attend school, and business owners are afraid to operate due to the threat of attacks and looting. The Commission emphasised that under international law and African Union protocols, governments have a responsibility to protect all residents within their borders, while rejecting the generalisation and profiling of Nigerians as criminals.
The persistence of xenophobia, therefore, poses not just a moral or social challenge, but a direct economic threat. For the continent to move forward, a broader approach is required, one that addresses both economic and social barriers. Efforts to expand visa-free regimes, protect migrants, and promote public understanding of the benefits of intra-African trade are essential. Equally important is the need for governments to respond decisively to xenophobic violence, demonstrating a commitment to safeguarding all residents, regardless of nationality.
Botswana’s President, Duma Boko, has also challenged the narrative that migrants are responsible for job losses, describing it as a misconception often rooted in frustration rather than fact. He noted that hostility toward foreign workers frequently comes from individuals who are themselves unemployed and lack the skills demanded by the labour market, yet direct their anger at migrants who fill critical gaps in the economy.
According to him, migration is largely driven by economic necessity and the demand for specialised expertise, with many migrants contributing valuable skills that support growth in host countries. He emphasised that African economies should view labour mobility as an asset rather than a threat, pointing out that Botswana’s own expertise in mining and resource extraction is exportable across the continent. In his view, Africans should be able to move freely to where opportunities exist, as such exchanges strengthen industries, foster collaboration, and advance the broader goal of continental integration.
“The belief that migrants are taking jobs is often driven more by frustration than by economic reality. In many cases, those blaming foreigners for unemployment lack the skills required in the labour market. Migrants frequently bring expertise that fills critical gaps and supports economic growth in host countries. Migration is driven by necessity and opportunity, not by a desire to displace local workers.”
“African economies should see labour mobility as an asset, not a threat.
Botswana has developed strong capabilities in mining and extraction, and those skills are exportable across the continent.
Africans should be free to move to where opportunities exist, because that movement strengthens industries and deepens integration.
Restricting the movement of skilled Africans undermines the continent’s collective development.”
Ultimately, the future of the African Continental Free Trade Area will depend on more than its legal and economic frameworks. It will depend on whether Africans are willing to embrace a shared identity that transcends borders. This concern is amplified by the memory of the continent-wide solidarity that supported South Africa’s struggle against apartheid, and has led to growing criticism that, in failing to uphold those shared ideals of African unity and protection, South African society is falling short of the very support it once received from the rest of the continent.
The promise of a truly integrated African market may remain elusive, undermined not by external forces, but by internal divisions that continue to hold the continent back.
